Abstract: Die bauordnungsrechtlichen Anforderungen an den Brandschutz sind überwiegend linguistisch formuliert und damit mit einer gewissen Unschärfe behaftet. Darunter ist zu verstehen, dass die Anforderungen in der Regel keine strikt binäre Bewertung erlauben, sondern zwischen eindeutigem Erfüllen und Nicht-Erfüllen Zwischenstufen bestehen. Insbesondere die in § 14 der Musterbauordnung geforderte ´Möglichkeit´ der Menschenrettung lässt sich ohne eindeutig definierte Grenzwerte nicht unmittelbar quantitativ bewerten. Der vorliegende Beitrag stellt einen fuzzybasierten Ansatz vor, der es ermöglicht, diese linguistische Anforderung zunächst in eine skalare Kenngröße zu überführen und sie anschließend in einem erweiterten, dimensionslosen Modell zu bewerten. Hierzu wird die Fuzzy-Regelungstechnik genutzt, um anhand der argumentativ hergeleiteten Einflussvariablen Anzahl der Brandtoten und gerettete Personen einen Entscheidungsfaktor für die Möglichkeit der Menschenrettung zu bestimmen. Die Methodik basiert auf bewusst vereinfachten, modellhaften Annahmen und verwendet abschnittsweise lineare Zugehörigkeitsfunktionen sowie ein regelbasiertes Inferenzsystem. Die resultierenden diskreten Bewertungsergebnisse werden anschließend zu einer kontinuierlichen, dimensionslosen Fläche erweitert, um auch Brandereignisse unter erheblichem Informationsdefizit bewertbar zu machen.Die Ergebnisse zeigen plausible Bewertungsverläufe und verdeutlichen, dass der gesellschaftlich höhere Einfluss von Todesfällen gegenüber geretteten Personen innerhalb des Modells gezielt abgebildet und parametriert werden kann. Der Beitrag liefert einen methodischen Ansatz zur Quantifizierung bauordnungsrechtlicher Schutzziele, der auch bei unsicherer Datenlage anwendbar ist.
Abstract: Building-code requirements for fire safety are predominantly formulated in linguistic terms and are therefore inherently associated with a certain degree of ambiguity. In this context, the requirements generally do not permit a strictly binary assessment; instead, intermediate states exist between clear compliance and non-compliance. In particular, the requirement in Section 14 of the German Model Building Code (Musterbauordnung, MBO) concerning the “possibility” of rescuing occupants cannot be directly quantified in the absence of clearly defined threshold values.This contribution presents a fuzzy-logic-based approach that first transforms this linguistic requirement into a scalar indicator and subsequently evaluates it within an extended dimensionless model. Fuzzy control methodology is applied to derive a decision factor representing the possibility of occupant rescue based on two conceptually derived influencing variables: the number of fire fatalities and the number of persons rescued. The methodology is deliberately based on simplified, conceptual assumptions and employs piecewise-linear membership functions together with a rule-based inference system. The resulting discrete assessment values are subsequently extended to form a continuous, dimensionless response surface, enabling the evaluation of fire incidents even under conditions of substantial information uncertainty.The results show plausible assessment patterns and demonstrate that the greater societal significance attributed to fatalities compared with rescued persons can be explicitly represented and parameterized within the model. The proposed approach provides a methodological framework for quantifying fire-safety objectives defined by building regulations and remains applicable even when the available data are uncertain or incomplete.
Abstract: Reducing the energy consumption of buildings is a major challenge in building physics. Traditional methods like simulations often struggle to capture complex interdependencies. This study explores the use of Fault-Tree Analysis (FTA), originally developed in aerospace, to identify and evaluate energy-saving measures in buildings. FTA enables a hierarchical breakdown of influencing factors, revealing interconnections and vulnerabilities. This structured approach supports the identification of effective strategies and equivalent alternatives. A key focus is integrating FTA into the planning process, considering both effectiveness and costs. Given rising construction expenses due to interest rates, labor shortages, and material scarcity, this is especially relevant. Practical examples illustrate common weaknesses in building systems and their effects on energy efficiency. The results show that FTA complements conventional methods by providing a solid foundation for decision-making and improving communication among planners and stakeholders. FTA offers new perspectives for energy-efficient planning, especially in complex projects, promoting sustainable and economically viable building solutions.
Abstract: The advent of Advanced Air Mobility and the Simplified Vehicle Operations Concept is transforming pilot training. Innovative flight simulator environments are required to meet the need for scalable and cost-effective methods. Mixed Reality (MR) offers immersive solutions for training pilots of electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL) systems. This paper outlines a systemic approach to defining requirements for MR-based training programs and identifies performance shaping factors for ab initio eVTOL pilots using a User-Centered Design Process. Through collaboration with flight instructors and experts, the most effective training modules for MR environments are identified. An expert study then evaluates a low-fidelity prototype of an MR eVTOL training concept, providing insights that support the development of immersive and effective MR pilot training.
Abstract: Advanced Air Mobility aircraft designs following the Simplified Vehicle Operations (SVO) concept require novel environments for practical and intuitive pilot training. Mixed Reality (MR) technologies can support immersive and interactive learning methods for operating several SVO aircraft, including electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL) systems. Despite this potential, regulatory guidelines for simulator-based eVTOL pilot training, especially concerning the Instructor Operator Station (IOS) design, are nascent and require substantive development. This paper investigates the feasibility of an MR eVTOL research simulator as a training tool for instructors. A user study forms the basis for a bottom-up categorization of the instructor's performance shaping factors, which are pivotal for the design of an MR IOS. This paper contributes to the discourse on MR integration in pilot training by identifying key enhancements necessary for an IOS design.
Abstract: Fire statistics mirror the outcome of fire prevention. Most fire statistics in Germany deal with the loss of life, value, and fire department actions (number of interventions, nozzles used, or alarm category like a false alarm). However, these results also represent the safety level the legislator has set through the prescriptive building regulations. The current statistics cannot evaluate the level of fire safety and the fulfillment or necessity of fire safety precautions. Today, expert judgment from firefighters is necessary to fill this gap. Here, we show the first evaluation of fire prevention and hazard protection measures by evaluating 900 potentially harming fires throughout Germany. In contrast to minor fires, these fires have advanced to the extent that they could potentially violate the protection objectives outlined in building regulations. The fire department association developed a questionnaire to evaluate the fire safety level and possibly reduce unnecessary fire safety regulations. One hundred twenty-three fire departments carried out the questionnaire, which are responsible for 25% of the German population. Fire prevention officers of the fire departments went to the scene after the fire was extinguished, and the fire safety concept of the building could be evaluated. We found a high rate of injuries, smoke spread, need for rescue by firefighters, and higher than expected firefighter response times after arrival at the scene. Surprisingly, smoke spread rates correlated with building height and not with building age. It was even possible to assess the risk of multiple casualties. Overall, the questionnaire results give insight into the current level of fire safety in existing buildings. Ways and rates for smoke and fire spread prove the importance of second escape routes and the influence of human misconduct. According to these results, current building code regulations are sufficient to prevent fire spread. On the other hand, smoke spreading is a severe threat to people’s safety. For example, the data shown can be applied in Bayes nets or other risk calculations to optimize individual building designs or even governmental building codes concerning fire safety engineering. Based on our observations, science, and building codes, authorities could in the future establish a performance-based building code instead of the current prescriptive code. This paper presents the first approach in Germany to quantify the expert judgment of fire departments and use it as a source of knowledge for fire prevention.
Abstract: The article discusses the difference between the socially acceptable level of fire safety for people and the protection of property according to German and EU legislation. This level of safety is compared with the methodology of the IEC 62305-2 risk management standard for lightning protection. The significance of rising construction costs and the emphasis on planning costs for unnecessary risk calculations. We discuss lightning protection in terms of personal and property safety, with a focus on risk-based approaches from fire safety engineering. The ongoing debate in Germany on lightning protection standards and their impact on building safety and cost-effectiveness will be examined. In addition, legal aspects in Germany and the EU related to lightning protection are explained. An outlook on a new approach to lightning protection risk calculations is given.
Abstract: In Germany, building codes relating to fire safety are mainly prescriptive nature. Therefore, fire safety engineering is based on a combination of expert judgment and reverse engineering of prescriptive rules. This necessitates to connect the given objectives with the detailed prescriptive rules—if not already described within the law or bylaw. This paper proposes a table relating the fire safety objectives of European building regulations and their German counterpart with the prescriptive model building code in Germany. In addition, a risk curve for prenormative work is also given. This represents the prescriptive regulations concerning in terms of fatalities of a level acceptable to society and emphasizes the lower degree of acceptance of multiple fatalities occurring in a single incident. This residual risk limit represents the opinion of German firefighting associations. Data taken from the London area supports the suggested slope rate, as the level of safety in Britain is similar to that in Germany. The table of prescriptive building regulations and their corresponding objectives aids everyday planning decisions in the context of determining adequate compensation without missing out any essential aspects, such as firefighting and firefighter safety. The proposed table forms the basis of the current discussion of a European model performance-based model building code (PBC) within the European Committee for Standardization CEN. Moreover, the risk curve is the first to be discussed in Germany that takes into consideration the societal aspect. It forms an appropriate basis for performing fire safety risk calculations based on fault tree analysis or Bayes nets. The CEN working group for fire safety engineering discusses both aspects of the current development of a European, performance-based fire safety code. It is presented here for the first time.
Abstract: In the original published version of this article, the affiliation for two authors was incorrectly displayed as “Chari of Nuclear Technology” & “Chari of Ergonomics”. This has now been corrected to “Institute of Nuclear Technology” & “Institute of Ergonomics”. The authors apologise for this error. Both the HTML and PDF versions of the article have been updated to correct the error.
Abstract: The article describes the export data of a flight research simulator experiment. The data show how different forms of presentation affect the behavior of instructions for test subjects. The representation forms algorithm, image and text are examined with regard to the number of top events, error frequencies, execution times and subjectively perceived workload. For this purpose, a study was carried out with n = 93 test persons in the research flight simulator, in which the test persons had the task of landing a passenger aircraft using the autopilot with different representation forms. 14 Possible work errors with 11 different representation forms. Further, there are questionnaire answers from test persons.
Abstract: A new concept has been developed to compare different ways of presenting instructions for action for evaluation procedures. The representation forms algorithm (A), image (I) and text (T) are examined with regard to the number of top events, error frequencies, execution times and subjectively perceived workload. For this purpose, a study was carried out with n = 93 test persons in the research flight, in which the test persons had the task of landing a passenger aircraft using the autopilot with different representation forms. Possible work errors 14 with 11 different steps in the representation. Results of positive work-task landing plane: algorithm 58 % (1.7/14 errors σ = 1.5), text 62 % (1.5/14 errors σ = 1.1), image 93 % (0.8/14 errors σ = 1.1).
